Revision for genre:
What is genre?
Genre is a French word for type or category
Definition:
Genre is a set of codes and conventions that are dynamic and “flexible” (Richard Maltby, 1995) and followed by a text through the repertoire of elements.
Recognising a genre could be by:
Codes and conventions
Expectations
Pleasures
Similarities of a certain genre
Repertoire of elements
Ø Iconography
Ø Style
Ø Setting
Ø Characters
Ø Audiences response
Ø Narrative
Ø Themes
The importance of genre:
Genre is used everyday in throughout film and is important in order to categorise between films through genres.
Genres being dynamic:
Genres are not fixed, as stated above:
- Richard Maltby stated, “Genres are flexible” and could “adapt and change”.
Films are not permanently fixed to a single genre resulting in a hybrid genre in contemporary films.
We use genres to help us understand films and the process of making them. We look at series of commercially successful films and may find a pattern of repetition and difference.
In other words, some films have identifiable similarities but also contain new elements or similar elements used in new ways.
Genres or groups are not fixed definitions and that can change over time. This is because filmmaking practices change and audiences change in a way they understand films.
Genre is associated with commercial filmmakingà most films are part of a mainstream commercial cinema. Outside the mainstream films are called art films (arthouse films)à selected or specialist audiences (preferred audience). They are unique and try to avoid the tag of genre cinema.
Some genres are far too broad to be used as a category such as comedy or action with wide range of films.
Genres are not fixed categories:
Films such as A nightmare on elm street does not fit neatly into a single category. It has elements of slasher, horror and fantasy. This is called hybrid and is a term borrowed from biology to describe any new genre, which has elements of both its parents in a new structure.
Repertoire of elements
Genre is dynamic. The definition for a particular genre is fluid, changing over time and across cultures. Neale referred to the repertoire of elements, which are different features that an audience might expect to see. From these elements, generic descriptions might be constructed.
A repertoire is a group of routines (songs, magic tricks) and for example film, the repertoire is the generic elements.
Ø Iconography
Definition: iconography refers to a classification of paintings based on common images or icons.
Films contain visual images- knife, blood, and mask
Sounds images- scream, eerie music (strings)
In slasher films, the central visual iconic image is the blood and/or phallic weapon. The central iconic sound image is the scream and/or eerie music.
Ø Style
This is similar to media language. Iconography refers to objects of sounds however style refers to how they are presented. Camera angles and composition, editing and the use of colour and special effects all contribute to the style of a film.
Ø Setting
Some genres have distinct locations such as in slasher genre, it is the isolated area/house in the suburban area.
Ø Narrative
Narrative refers to both the story structures that films employ and the specific narrative devices or elements that are used in the construction.
Most genres offer a narrative of ‘reassurance’ for example the villain being killed/punished.
Narratives are concerned with conflicts over ideas and values. Stories begin when the existing equilibrium or balance between opposing forces.
à Todorov’s theory on narrative structure
(Equilibrium, disequilibrium and resolution)
Narrative moments or set pieces are often the most easily recognisable and eagerly anticipated elements of a film. An example is chases in slasher films usually better killer and final girl
Carol Clover (Men, women and chainsaws)
Ø Characters
Narrative usually develops through characters. The villain causes the narrative problem that must be resolved by the hero.
The villain in a slasher genre is usually a masked killer though not always male.
Some characters are associated with a genre that they attain the status of generic types. An example is the psychopath being stopped by a character described by Carol Clover as the ‘final girl’. (Clover, 1987).
Ø Themes
The binary oppositions in a film to interest the audience.
Claude Levi Strauss
Examples are: male versus female, victim versus killer, insanity versus sanity.
The concept of discourse- an argument or debate about a topic is another way in which film theorists consider themes.
Ø Audience response
Slasher genre gives the audience the sensation/ immediate emotional response. The adrenaline-rush through enigmatic scenes, being at the edge of your seat, tension and anxiety, release of laughter, and for horror/slasherà we watch our deepest fears and desires being played out on actor’s bodies.
Other pleasures audiences may gain from a slasher genre are
Ø Visceral pleasures
Ø Masochistic pleasures
Ø Sadistic pleasures
Rick Altman (film/genre, 1999)
The ‘before’ and ‘after’ view of categorising films
The critics/theorists game takes the after view:
Reads documents and noting references on specific genre
Analyse the characteristics
Find similarities/generic traits to identify it belonging to a specific genre
Analysis begins
The critic is based on analysis after the event (after view).
The film produce takes the view before the event:
1. Identifies a successful film
2. Analyses it to find successful traits
3. Makes film using same formula as successful film
4. Does further analysis and modifies the formula
Film producers are interested in what makes a film successful by identifying successful formulas and using them in different ways.
why do genres change over time?
Ø Changes in Target audience
Media institutions and producers need to have a clear idea about the audience a text is likely to attract before production begins and the age, gender and social class of the audience is likely to influence the way a text is made from choices about who will in the films that ht he special; effects used.
Audience who consume the text may be very different from audiences intended and different texts from different genres may appeal to different audiences.
It is argued that target audiences have become younger over the years. This is known as ‘juvenilisation’.
Ø Changes in audience expectations
Contemporary audience are more sophisticated audiences that those who first started to watching moving texts. In terms of reading a text to establish a likely genre and is likely to be familiar with the codes and conventions of that genre from reading the similar texts.
The expectations of scary, tense atmosphere, heat rate increasing, and seeing something nasty. These familiarly with codes and conventions will all raise expectations.
Enjoyment comes from watching texts as knowing what to expect is enjoyable. Filmmakers can manipulate emotions by meeting or cheating the expectations we have based on a text.
In contemporary films: producers repeat codes and conventions while adding something new:’ final twist’. Novelties may be rejected or absorbed into the genre so they become conventions for newer texts in the future.
Ø Censorship
Explicit scenes were censored in films in 1960 which banned explicit nudity, swearing and excessive and lustful kissing. Modern audiences are used to much more graphic sex and violence and the boundaries of where was considered as tasteful are stretched more and more.
Saturday, June 16, 2007
Revision for representation:
Definition: Representation is the mediated versions of people, in this case woman, in the form of a re-presentation.
Stereotypes are an element that is always found in media texts, whether it adverts, films or television programmes. It is the most common form of media representation ad labels and categorises people.
Ø Media texts contain stereotypes because of the need to economy (create identification)
Ø The function of the media is to please the audience and therefore to fulfil this, representations (stereotypes) are used to meet their expectations
Ø Stereotypes are widely used because audiences can understand theses stereotype are they will be familiar with them.
Ø Familiarly will mean more audiences will understand and attract higher/mainstream audiences because most television programs are quite short, the identities of characters must be established as quickly as possible.
Ø Some stereotypes are used to create humour such as the ‘bimbo’
Feminism is the response to society’s assumptions that women should be subservient to men. Until the emergence of feminism, women were treated almost as objects, passive agents in the male world
PATRIACHAL WORLD
Laura Mulvey
She argues that cinema audiences look at films in tow ways:
Ø Voyeuristically
Ø Fetishistically
Audiences are voyeurs who watch people on screen. This can lead to two effects:
-Objectification- female characters controlling male gaze and human characteristics being taken from them.
-Narcissistic identification-having an ideal image on screen
Gauntlett argues that in contemporary society, gender roles are more complex and that the media reflect this.
He says female’s role models today are often glamorous as well as successful.
He argues that this is due to the ‘rise in girl power’
The reason women are represented inadequately is due to lack of females in higher positions. Media is a male dominated as a result woman is shown representation from their point of view.
Film in particular sees women in an active role however they are being shown as eye candy and objectified. The reason for the lack of directors is due to:
Naomie Harris
“Film is such a male dominated industry”
Ø Men are al every level making it harder for women to get their feet in the door
Ø The way of working makes it difficult for women to succeed in the business.
Ø The responsibly of caring for a child and working in the media could be a lot of work to handle.
Ø Women are better organisers (producers) and males are more creative (directors)
Ø The role of a director is equivalent to raising a family
Ø Films have expensive and advanced equipment and so males understanding how and when to use it
Ø Being charge of 10 to 150 large men with heavy equipment is best carried out by a male
Ø When women just has a child, its easy for them to go back to being a producer, however its harder if you’re a director
Gunter (1995)
In the 50’s, 60’s and 70’s, only 20% to 35% of characters were female. By mid 1980’s, women were in more leading roles but still there were twice as many men that women on television.
Miles (1975)
He found that there were nearly equal proportions of men and women in situation comedy whereas in action adventure shows, only 15% of the leading characters were female.
Gunter (1970’s)
Found that marriage, parenthood and domesticity were shown on television to be more important for women.
McNeil (1975)
Women’s movement had been largely ignored by television with married housewives being the main female role.
He also found men to be dominant characters and the decision makers on TV. Men were more assertive (aggressive) and women more passive.
Gaye Tuchman (1978)
He argued that women were underrepresented in media fictional life. A term he sued to describe this was symbolically annihilated.
Gillian Dyer (1987)
Television was increasingly taken women seriously and there are a number of programmes that feature women in a more central role.
E. Ann Kaplan
In Hollywood films, women’s desire is subjected to male desire.
Rosen (1973)
The role of women in a film almost always revolves around her physical attraction
Ø 89% of adverts used a male voiceover
Ø Men were twice more likely than women to appear in adverts for non-domestic products.
Ø Housewife images began to decline slowly after the 1950’s
Beauty
Greer (1999)
Much more pressure was put on women to impress with make up, high heels and wonder bras.
Walter (1998)
Attractive people earn more than their plain colleagues.
Representation of gender today
Past-stereotyped
Producers- women who kiss ass heroines do better business
Definition: Representation is the mediated versions of people, in this case woman, in the form of a re-presentation.
Stereotypes are an element that is always found in media texts, whether it adverts, films or television programmes. It is the most common form of media representation ad labels and categorises people.
Ø Media texts contain stereotypes because of the need to economy (create identification)
Ø The function of the media is to please the audience and therefore to fulfil this, representations (stereotypes) are used to meet their expectations
Ø Stereotypes are widely used because audiences can understand theses stereotype are they will be familiar with them.
Ø Familiarly will mean more audiences will understand and attract higher/mainstream audiences because most television programs are quite short, the identities of characters must be established as quickly as possible.
Ø Some stereotypes are used to create humour such as the ‘bimbo’
Feminism is the response to society’s assumptions that women should be subservient to men. Until the emergence of feminism, women were treated almost as objects, passive agents in the male world
PATRIACHAL WORLD
Laura Mulvey
She argues that cinema audiences look at films in tow ways:
Ø Voyeuristically
Ø Fetishistically
Audiences are voyeurs who watch people on screen. This can lead to two effects:
-Objectification- female characters controlling male gaze and human characteristics being taken from them.
-Narcissistic identification-having an ideal image on screen
Gauntlett argues that in contemporary society, gender roles are more complex and that the media reflect this.
He says female’s role models today are often glamorous as well as successful.
He argues that this is due to the ‘rise in girl power’
The reason women are represented inadequately is due to lack of females in higher positions. Media is a male dominated as a result woman is shown representation from their point of view.
Film in particular sees women in an active role however they are being shown as eye candy and objectified. The reason for the lack of directors is due to:
Naomie Harris
“Film is such a male dominated industry”
Ø Men are al every level making it harder for women to get their feet in the door
Ø The way of working makes it difficult for women to succeed in the business.
Ø The responsibly of caring for a child and working in the media could be a lot of work to handle.
Ø Women are better organisers (producers) and males are more creative (directors)
Ø The role of a director is equivalent to raising a family
Ø Films have expensive and advanced equipment and so males understanding how and when to use it
Ø Being charge of 10 to 150 large men with heavy equipment is best carried out by a male
Ø When women just has a child, its easy for them to go back to being a producer, however its harder if you’re a director
Gunter (1995)
In the 50’s, 60’s and 70’s, only 20% to 35% of characters were female. By mid 1980’s, women were in more leading roles but still there were twice as many men that women on television.
Miles (1975)
He found that there were nearly equal proportions of men and women in situation comedy whereas in action adventure shows, only 15% of the leading characters were female.
Gunter (1970’s)
Found that marriage, parenthood and domesticity were shown on television to be more important for women.
McNeil (1975)
Women’s movement had been largely ignored by television with married housewives being the main female role.
He also found men to be dominant characters and the decision makers on TV. Men were more assertive (aggressive) and women more passive.
Gaye Tuchman (1978)
He argued that women were underrepresented in media fictional life. A term he sued to describe this was symbolically annihilated.
Gillian Dyer (1987)
Television was increasingly taken women seriously and there are a number of programmes that feature women in a more central role.
E. Ann Kaplan
In Hollywood films, women’s desire is subjected to male desire.
Rosen (1973)
The role of women in a film almost always revolves around her physical attraction
Ø 89% of adverts used a male voiceover
Ø Men were twice more likely than women to appear in adverts for non-domestic products.
Ø Housewife images began to decline slowly after the 1950’s
Beauty
Greer (1999)
Much more pressure was put on women to impress with make up, high heels and wonder bras.
Walter (1998)
Attractive people earn more than their plain colleagues.
Representation of gender today
Past-stereotyped
Producers- women who kiss ass heroines do better business
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